Sunday, July 28, 2019

algebra precalculus - An incorrect method to sum the first $n$ squares which nevertheless works



Start with the identity



$\sum_{i=1}^n i^3 = \left( \sum_{i = 1}^n i \right)^2 = \left(\frac{n(n+1)}{2}\right)^2$.




Differentiate the left-most term with respect to $i$ to get



$\frac{d}{di} \sum_{i=1}^n i^3 = 3 \sum_{i = 1}^n i^2$.



Differentiate the right-most term with respect to $n$ to get



$\frac{d}{dn} \left(\frac{n(n+1)}{2}\right)^2 = \frac{1}{2}n(n+1)(2n+1)$.



Equate the derivatives, obtaining




$\sum_{i=1}^n i^2 = \frac{1}{6}n(n+1)(2n+1)$,



which is known to be correct.



Is there any neat reason why this method happens to get lucky and work for this case?


Answer



Let $f_k(n)=\sum_{i=1}^n i^k$. We all know that $f_k$ is actually
a polynomial of degree $k+1$. Also $f_k$ can be characterised by the two
conditions:
$$f_k(x)-f_k(x-1)=x^k$$

and
$$f_k(0)=0.$$
Differentiating the first condition gives
$$f_k'(x)-f_k'(x-1)=k x^{k-1}.$$
Therefore the polynomial $(1/k)f_k'$ satisfies the first of the two
conditions that $f_{k-1}$ does. But it may not satisfy the second. But then
$(1/k)(f_k'(x)-f_k'(0))$ does. So
$$f_{k-1}(x)=\frac{f_k'(x)-f_k'(0)}k.$$



The mysterious numbers $f_k'(0)$ are related to the Bernoulli numbers,

and when $k\ge3$ is odd they obligingly vanish...


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